Hong Kong Peoples Social Values Of Welfare Sociology Essay

Hong Kong Peoples Social Values Of Welfare Sociology Essay Subject: Critically look at the turn of events and changes of social estimations of government assistance held by Hong Kong individuals when 1997. What are the components influencing the changes? Government assistance is all aggregate mediations to address certain issues of the individual or potentially to serve the more extensive interests of society may now be comprehensively gathered into㠢â‚ ¬Ã¢ ¦ classifications of government assistance (Titmuss, 1959). The improvement in the social estimations of government assistance has consistently been changing consistently, especially the twentieth century. In conventional Chinese society, individuals used to accepted that social government assistance, or fuk lei, was given by kind-hearted humanitarians in the public eye (N. Chow, 1994, p.325). In the mid twentieth century, the idea of social government assistance was still exceptionally feeble among Hong Kong individuals. Greater part of government assistance administrations were given by non-government associations before 1965 (W. S. Chow, 1993, p. 41). The circumstance changed after the distribution of the white paper of the social government assistance in 1965. Along with the ascent of social laborer, more individuals consider social government assistance is a piece of their social equality in the next decades. In 1997, the adjustment in power of Hong Kong and the Asian monetary emergency welcomed a critical effect on the social estimations of government assistance. In the accompanying sections, I will quickly talk about the advancement of social government assistance in Hong Kong and the comparing social estimations of government assistance, especially the progressions when 1997. As will be contended, there are both long haul and momentary variables that drove the changes. The previous would be the expanding thought of social equality and the last would be the Asian monetary emergency in 1997, the adjustment in sway of Hong Kong and the distribution of Comprehensive Social Security Assistance (CSSA) Review. In the mid twentieth century, greater part of individuals considered government assistance was given by kind-hearted humanitarians in the public eye. As Hong Kong was a province of Britain around then, the pilgrim government put their spotlights on securing the Britishs intrigue, especially the British dealers. Henceforth, the living condition and government assistance of nearby Chinese were not worried by the provincial government except if it meddle the enthusiasm of British. With this pilgrim foundation, neighborhood Chinese excused the idea of government assistance would not be given by the frontier government. The Chinese traders utilized their riches to set up and keep up their notorieties and positions of authority through demonstrations of good cause (Leung, 1996, p.3). They set up associations and offered government assistance to local people. Among these associations, Tung Wah Hospital was the most important altruistic association which cooked the clinical administrations a nd government assistance needs to local people. Aside from these associations, chapels and groups man affiliation would likewise offer government assistance to local people as well. In the post World War II period, the circumstance had a somewhat change. In the post war period, an enormous number of non-government or willful government assistance associations were set up in Hong Kong. It is imperative to take note of that the vast majority of these government assistance associations had their parent-bodies abroad. An ordinary case of these associations would be the Hong Kong Red Cross. During this crisis period, the globally connected government assistance association had likely done significantly more than the legislature in meeting the government assistance needs of individuals (N. Chow, 1994, p.324). In spite of the fact that the idea of government assistance is given by kind-hearted givers was debilitate, most of the Chinese in Hong Kong are as yet incapable to wipe away the conventional thoughts of government assistance and acknowledge the cutting edge thought that it ought to be the duty of the state to give the essential social government assistance admin istrations (N. Chow, 1994, p. 325). Then, a huge extent of populace was outcast from territory China (Due to the common war in China). Some portion of them considered Hong Kong is there impermanent sanctuary yet not their home. Consequently, government assistance improvement would not be their thought as they expected to leave Hong Kong soon. These variables made there were just little weight gatherings would battle for the rights for local people in that period. The circumstance further changed after 1965. In 1965, the provincial government distributed the White Paper on social government assistance. N.Y. Chow (1993) recommends that to be careful, the start of social government assistance strategy of Hong Kong was after the distribution of the principal White Paper on social government assistance in 1965 (p.41). The White paper was the main government archive that talks about social government assistance strategy in Hong Kong. It clarified the government assistance improvement and coordinated the encounters from the turn of events. Likewise, it gives the stands of provincial government toward social government assistance strategy and reasons that made the administration can't execute far reaching social arrangement in Hong Kong. In spite of the fact that the White Paper has been accused for ailing top to bottom conversation on the outline of social government assistance improvement and the predictable difficulties, however this White paper g ives an establishment for the further advancement of social government assistance framework (W. S. Chow, 1993). The idea of social government assistance and government were done dissevering like the past. More individuals began to coordinate social government assistance into the job of government. The most quick change was found during the 70s. There were two main considerations that drove the change, the Big Bang of social approach and the ascent of social specialist. The Big Bang of social approach was started by the 25th legislative leader of Hong Kong, Murray MacLehose. After MacLehose take office the representative in 1972, he had a solid awareness of other's expectations towards social government assistance, under his impact, revision of social government assistance strategy was essential (W. S. Chow, 1993, p. 52). Aside from it, the expanding social issues (for example the uproar in 1966 and 1967, Corruption) drove the interest for governments association in social government assistance further expanded. These variables encouraged the distribution of the subsequent White Paper of social government assistance in 1973. The point of the White Paper was allowing a multi year plan of social government assistance improvement and partitioning the obligation in giving social go vernment assistance among government and deliberate associations. The parts of social government assistance in the multi year plan included instruction, lodging, clinical help, social remittance, youth administrations and so forth. The exhaustive development of government assistance administrations expanded the inclusion of individuals in social government assistance framework. The estimation of government assistance would not be given by the pioneer government was further debilitating in this period. Aside from the Big Bang of social arrangement, the ascent of social specialist likewise prompted the noteworthy change in social estimation of government assistance. The ascent of social laborer could be followed back to the professionalization of social work and the execute of expert preparing at the University of Hong Kong and the Chinese University of Hong Kong in the mid-1960s. During the 1960s, Fabian Socialism was the most stylish methodology instructed in the social work schools of the two colleges (N. Chow, 1994, p.327). Fairness, opportunity and partnership are the focal estimations of Fabian Socialism. The social work understudies in 60s and 70s were emphatically impacted by these qualities. They had a solid feeling of moving in the direction of an increasingly equivalent and equity society. Consequently, when the understudies became social specialists in the public eye, they would attempt to advocate arrangements that accomplish to these two standards. More individuals wou ld think about government assistance as a way to accomplish an equivalent society. In the mean time, the youthful social specialists around then additionally worried on social liberties. They accepted that social government assistance is one the significant pieces of social equality. At the point when they graduated, they would instruct and advocate general society to maintain their social equality through various social activities. Accordingly, under this impact, it prompted the ascent of the familiarity with government assistance framework as rights appreciated by resident. Another noteworthy difference in social estimations of government assistance could be found in 1997. The central point that prompted the change is the Asian Financial Crisis in 1997. Prior to the emergency, the economy in Hong Kong was at blast. Larger part of individuals were effectively putting resources into property market and securities exchange. Around then, individuals underscored on material qualities and transient time skyline. Material qualities are the significant model used to assess the value of things and individuals (C.K. Wong, K. L. Chow K.Y. Wong, 2001, p.68). In the interim, larger part of Chinese financial specialist were searching for the most extreme advantage in the briefest timeframe. Topley states that numerous Chinese despite everything like to put resources into non-mechanical property and exchange in view of the moderately speedier return of capital and benefits. When putting resources into industry, the staggering want of speculators is to search for snappy benefits by whatever means present themselves as appealing in the short run as opposed to search for open door for beginning long haul venture. (as refered to in Lau, 1982, p.70) As both of the property market and securities exchange were so prospered, the financial condition empowered individuals to accomplish the above objectives at the same time. This thus drove Hong Kong got probably the wealthiest city in Asia. The expectation for everyday comforts in Hong Kong was one of the most noteworthy in Hong Kong history in the early mid 1990s. As a great many people could continue their life in the market, they put less thought on the government assistance framework. Around then, individuals would consider social government assistance framework was distinctly for the individuals who were deprived in the public eye, similar to older and impaired individuals. As it were, regardless of the oppressed and the relating pressure gathering, dominant part in the public eye would not think about the government assistance framework as they accepted they could accomplish self-sustentions in showcase. When all is said in done, social government assistance advancement was ove rpowered by monetary improvement at that period. Be that as it may, a noteworthy change was incited by the 1997 money related emergency. An extraordinary gloom in both financial exchange and property showcase was incited by the emergency. Heaps of individuals were

Political Science Syria Government Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Political Theory Syria Government - Essay Example In any case, this was not the case on the grounds that in an uncommon demonstration of solidarity between the Republicans and Democrats, there was broad restriction to any negative marks against the Syrian government, or any immediate association of the United States in the contention, consequently guaranteeing that the administration stays responsible to the American individuals. The way that there was across the board restriction to United States association in Syria from the two gatherings is a genuine explanation of the affectability towards this issue the American open feels (McDonnell). In an uncommon occurrence of solidarity, the delegates of the two gatherings appear to have, collectively, decided to set a motivation that speaks to the genuine sentiments of their constituents, who are generally exhausted of war. Truth be told, surveys demonstrated that the United States should quit focusing on the illuminating of outside clashes and rather focus on taking care of the developi ng number of issues on the local scene. Regardless of the appearing solidarity of the two gatherings concerning Syria, the reality has from the beginning remained that the United States government doesn't have an unmistakable strategy concerning Syria and this is maybe the motivation behind why the contention has proceeded throughout the previous two years. This contention has, be that as it may, likewise made a circumstance where it has gotten hard for the United States to manage the different results, for example, the advancement of the evacuee issue (Sly). It is almost certainly that the continuation of the Syrian clash will make a displaced person issue, as Syrian exiles look to settle in the United States. The way that Syrian exiles will probably look for refuge in the United States has gotten a stressing subject in the two gatherings and this is probably going to be another issue which will join the Democrats and the Republicans in a bipartisan manner. What's more, the Syrian war has caused the partners of the United States in the area, for example, Turkey and Jordan to have an inundation of displaced people which has made a pitiful circumstance in these nations (Araabi). The way that the Democrats and the Republicans, in spite of demonstrating that they can cooperate, still can't seem to organize their endeavors to think of a reasonable approach concerning Syria, which ought to include the ouster of the Syrian government and president, is generally upsetting. The United States Congress should squeeze the legislature to guarantee that it makes an unmistakable strategy that will empower the carrying the Syrian clash to a convincing end that will give enduring harmony to the Syrian individuals. Both the Democrats and the Republicans accept that the Assad system has lost its command to lead over the Syrian individuals and along these lines, it must go. This has been a standing situation of both of these gatherings since the start of the contention, yet rega rdless of this, there still can't seem to build up an unmistakable methods through which the Assad system can be removed (Kostyaev 54). Moreover, the two gatherings have discovered that the proceeded with rule of the Assad system will be adverse to the exile circumstance in the nation. This is mostly a direct result of the way that there will be an expansion, not

The State of the Mail Opened Processed

The State of the Mail Opened Processed Our fabulous Records Office team has processed all of the mail we have received. Now were really ready to read applications! This is a good time for you to check your application tracking on MyMIT. It will show what materials we have processed for you. We should have the following: Application Part 1, Application Part 2, Secondary School Report and Transcript, Evaluation A, Evaluation B, Testing Requirements (we should have processed most December testing by now), and, if applicable, Interview Report. What happens if the tracking system is missing something? First, do not worry. We do not assign blame on why we dont have it, we just know that we have not processed it. We will not look at your application unfavorably because it is missing an application component at this time. We will wait a while longer before having it evaluated to give you time to send along another copy. There are still many more weeks of reading to be done, so as long as you get us the copies in a timely manner, there will be no impact. The best way to get us a missing piece is by fax. Our Records Office fax number is (617) 258-8304. They loaded new toner into the fax machine today, so theyre prepared for the new documents! If we are missing an evaluation, the teacher may fax a copy to us. If they need another copy of the evaluation form, you can get a PDF from the tracking system. If you had an interview more than two weeks ago and we havent yet processed it, you should fill out the Conducted Interview form on the MyMIT Application Tracking Detail page. We will follow up with your Educational Counselor. If we have not processed standardized test scores that that you had the testing agency send us, then you may fax us a copy of an official score report. We will follow up with the testing agency. If we are missing your TOEFL scores, make sure the name on your application is exactly the same as it is on your TOEFL registration. If it is not, please send us an email with your TOEFL registration name. As mid-year grades are not yet available for most students, we do not expect that most students have sent in the Mid-Year Grade Report. You should send this in as soon as possible after your grades are available. Bottom line: do not stress if we are missing pieces. It happens every year for reasons usually beyond your control. No worries.

High School Math Common Assessment - 871 Words

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The Supply Chain Network Provides Flexibility For Users

different departments in Almost 21 and its members in the supply-chain network provides flexibility for users to deliver and analyze information to construct a regime to serve customers in a more effective way. For example, Almost 21 might need information from distributors to identify the sales of its design to make pricing adjustment to its product. This approach greatly reduces time to receive the physical documents and therefore allows Almost 21 to make speedy response to the targeted market. From a CRM perspective, the interrelated databases and customers’ participation in the development of data sets up an image that the company emphasizes the significance of customer opinions which helps to develop a long-term relationship with the†¦show more content†¦92-93). From figure 5 and 6, data mining techniques compliment with queries helps to find hidden relationships in the data marts in order to find customer preferences and suggest customized advertisements (Faria 2012, p. 255-256). As a result of acquisition, expansion and business nature, Almost 21 requires to do substantial analytical works in order to source complex data relationships within different customer segments such as the relation of spending behavior against age groups and the relation of product sales against age groups. Therefore, BI applications aims to help supply chain planners to implement product mix decisions which refers to the process of choosing the right product options to the customers for sale (Chowdhury Das 2012, p. 219). Additionally, BI applications advance the performance of Almost 21’s SCM and CRM. From a SCM perspective, the transparency of data, the availability of data mining and OLAP in data warehouse help to construct a more customized product and strengthen the supplier-suppler relationship. Hence, the BI applications facilitate the coordination and decision-making process in the supply-chain network, which in turn benefits the end-users. For example, Zara is a successful firm which had short lead times for new fashion idea because of its comprehensive data analysis, design and product management (Walter 2013). Furthermore, the BI applications help companies to

Radioactive Isotopes Free Essays

Radioactive Isotopes An isotope is one of two or more atoms with the same number of protons, and position in the periodic table, but different number of neutrons and physical properties. Isotopes have an unstable nucleus that decay suddenly by a release of nuclear electrons and radiation. This essay will be discussing one of the applications and uses of the radioactive isotopes, and it will also state one problem that radioactive isotopes can address. We will write a custom essay sample on Radioactive Isotopes or any similar topic only for you Order Now The radiation characteristically meet four kinds: alpha radiation, beta radiation, gamma radiation and x radiation. Alpha radiation is weighty, that includes a very-short variety element and is in fact a homeless helium nucleus. Some examples of alpha radiation are radium, radon, uranium, and thorium. Beta radiation is weightless, has short-range particles and is in fact a cast out electron; some examples of beta radiation are strontium -90, carbon-14, tritium, and sulphur-35. Gamma and x radiation are extremely incisive electromagnetic rays. One of the problems I’ll be discussing and is actually solved by radioactive isotopes is a cancer cell. Radiation therapy draws on high-energy radiation to damage on cancer cells by damaging their DNA, unfortunately it can also damage normal cells, so as a result the treatment must be circumspectly designed to reduce side effects. X rays offers huge advantages, counting the previous discovery of cancer and the opportunity of premature action, their use is linked with minute improves in cancer danger. In attendance the agreement vision is the profit of showing women over 50 years old, ignorantly prevail over the associated risks due to radiation experience. Typical effective doses from diagnostic medical exposures in the 1990s Diagnostic procedure | Typical effective does in millisieverts | Equivalent number of chest x-rays| Approximate equivalent period of natural background radiation (1)| X ray examination: -| Limbs and joints (except hip)| 0. 01| 0. 5| 1. 5 days| Chest (single PA film)| 0. 02| 1| 3 days| Skull| 0. 07| 3. 5| 11 days| Thoracic spine | 0. 7| 35| 4 months| Lumbar spine | 1. 3| 65| 7 months| Hip| 0. 3| 15| 7 weeks | Pelvis| 0. 7| 35| 4 months | Abdomen| 1. 0| 50| 6 months| Intravenous urogram (IVU) | 2. | 125| 14 months| Barium swallow| 1. 5| 75| 8 months| Barium meal| 3| 150| 16 months| Barium follow through | 3| 150| 16 months| Barium enema | 7| 350| 3. 2 years| CT head | 2. 3| 115| 1 year| CT chest | 8| 400| 3. 6 years| CT abdomen or pelvis | 10| 500| 4. 5 years| Radio nuclides studies: – | Lung ventilation (Xe-133)| 0. 3| 15| 7 weeks| Lung perfusion (TC-99m)| 1| 50| 6 months| Kidney (TC-99m) | 1| 50| 6 months| Thyroid (TC-99m)| 1| 50| 6 months | Bone (TC-99m)| 4| 200| 1. 8 years| Dynamic cardiac (TC-99m)| 6| 300| 2. 7 years| PET head (f-18 FDG)| 5| 25| 2. 3 years| There are 5 modern uses and applications of radioactive isotope, smoke detector, irradiation in pest control, food irradiation, medical uses, and agricultural application – radioactive tracers. I will be arguing the agricultural application-radioactive tracers by linking it with the factors and the local and global content. Agricultural application – radioactive tracers can be used to recognize chemical and biological procedures in vegetation. Radioisotopes are chemically the same with other isotopes of the identical element and will be replaced in chemical responses; radioactive isotope appearances of the onstituent can be simply noticed with such devices. Example: ? a solution of phosphate, containing radioactive phosphorus-32, is injected into the root system of a plant. Since phosphorus-32 behaves identically to that of phosphorus-31, the more common and non-radioactive form of the element, the plant uses it in the same way. A Geiger counter is then used to detect t he movement of the radioactive phosphorus-32 throughout the plant. This information helps scientists understand the detailed mechanism of how plants utilized phosphorus to grow and reproduce. Chemistry is connected to the compositions, properties, and the reaction in matter. Elements can help in agricultural applications by creating new substances in chemistry to improve our collections, the substance quality, production and the resistance time. By chemistry we can also have accurate proportions of chemicals, therefore they could produce the right substances, so later on chemistry could develop and improve agricultural application. Sustainable agricultural applications require a commitment to change public policies, economic organizations, and social values. There are 5 economical, political and social contents; food and agricultural policy, land use, labor, and rural community development. Food and agricultural policy, government and award college investigate strategies might be customized to highlight the progress of sustainable options. Land use, educational land use connivers and judges, think that agricultural application is an important thing to do to be on your right side. Labor, it must be supported by many government policies in order to recognize the impotents of an element of the land grant colleges, and watchfully measured when charging the impact of new technologies. Rural community development, economic development policies are needed to give the confidence by expanding the agricultural production on farmer families as a donation for healthy economies in rural communities. Sustainable agricultural rules can help further communities that meet employments of educational, health and social needs. A theoretical example of some of the factors affecting agricultural yields (the heavy red line): technology and management trends, innovation, policy, extreme factors and weather: – Agriculture offers us with the food we all eat every day, but can you identify how those agricultural performs impact global warming? We all know that there are negative impacts of global warming, as well as positive ones. Negative impacts as Industrial agriculture’s huge carbon footprint, Greenhouse gas emissions from fertilizer and pesticide use, and Land use changes and agriculture. Positive impacts as Carbon impounding in soils, Agriculture as carbon cap and storage, and Local food systems and greenhouse gas emissions. Bibliography: – * Web. 26 Feb. 012. ;http://www. chem. duke. edu/~jds/cruise_chem/nuclear/uses. html; * Web. 26 Feb. 2012. ; http://hps. org/publicinformation/ate/faqs/radiationtypes. html;. * Web. 26 Feb. 2012. ; http://wiki. answers. com/Q/What_is_the_importance_of_chemistry_in_agriculture ;. * Http://medicaldictionary. thefreedictionary. com/radioactive+isotope. Web. 26 Feb. 2012 * Web. 26 Feb. 2012. ; http://www. sarep. ucdavis. edu/concept. htm; * Web. 26 Feb. 2012. ; http://www. lef. org/protocols/cancer/radiation_therapy_01. htm;. How to cite Radioactive Isotopes, Essay examples

We, On The Death Row Essays - Communication Design, Benetton Group

We, On The Death Row ?WE, ON DEATH ROW? BENETTON'S CAMPAIGN Since 1989, Benetton officially adopted the trademark, United Colors of Benetton, initiating and formalizing more than ten years strategy to radically transform the face of conventional advertising. In place of the product, Benetton presented powerful and problematic visual images of social issues of universal importance such as environmental disasters, peace, AIDS, terrorism, murder, tolerance of diversity and struggle against racism. Benetton's advertising campaigns and social communication strategies are a clear echo of contemporary culture and society. Benetton's United Colors Campaign transformed the traditional notions of advertising, so that the goal is no longer to simply sell their products, the brand name or to create a desire. Instead, their campaigns promote social concerns, critiques and ideologies. Since Oliviero Toscani, photographer and creative director of Benetton advertising, arrived to the company, controversy has accompanied every campaign. Since then, campaigns have been based on photographs and journals. The use of crisis-torn images for commercials ends is what causes disturb to audiences, but has allowed Toscani to use a commercial medium for humanitarian ends. Because of the mentioned above, Benetton moreover than being just a clothing store, has become into a social entity. Where it's not only having a relationship with people because of fashion, but also has established relationship through sports (basketball, rugby, volleyball, and cars), and social concerns around the world. ?We, On Death Row? is a $20 million project. Created by Benetton in association with the National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers (NACDL) and the international death penalty abolitionist group, Rome- based Hands Off Cain. The campaign contains 26 photographs of people on death row with their names, ages and execution day over the words ?sentenced to death?. This campaign has already appeared in the Talk magazine with a special 100 pages brochure along with interviews (innocent interviews) made by the journalist Ken Schulman (a collaborator of the Newsweek magazine). This pictures has also appear on billboards, posters, newspapers and obviously available in the Benetton web page. There have been a great variety of reactions and opinions regarding these images. And because of this it is important to mention the positive and negative aspects about the campaign, establishing it in a global perspective (not with an American perspective). I am analyzing the campaign in a global perspective, because it is not a campaign targeted only to the U.S. public. It is a campaign designed to target people throughout the world. And even though the campaign was ?produced? in the U.S., the U.S market is not the only one and even more it is not the principal market. POSITIVE ABOUT THE MARKETING/ADVERTISING STRATEGY: ? First of all it is important to mention that the reaction has occur only in some places, specially the death penalty states. In other places is little noticed (like for example Washington state). This kind of reaction it is mainly a reaction in the U.S. because for example Italians, longtime opponents of the death penalty, increasingly are crusading against its use abroad. Over the coming year, Rome's colosseum is to be lighten up for 48 hours every time a death sentence is suspended anywhere in the world or a country abolishes the death penalty. ? The arguments in favor of capital punishment center around: ?an eye for an eye?. What kind of argument is this? ?The campaign is about the death penalty. Leaving aside any social, political or moral consideration, this project aims at showing to the public the reality of capital punishment? (Benetton, Looking). The real goal of the campaign is to put a human face on individuals this country is looking to execute and to create a dialog on the issue of punishment, regardless of the crime the individual committed, Speedy Rice a professor of law at Gonzaga University in Spokane, Wash., who served as NACDL's point man on the project and coordinated the visits with corrections officials, inmates, and their lawyers explained. This isn't intended as a slight to the victims or families. We just wanted to focus on the punishment. It is difficult to me to understand what is the real conflict in the people who disagree on the campaign. But the only answer I can put to this is that only here, i n

Biography of Pancho Villa -- The Centaur of the North

Biography of Pancho Villa The Centaur of the North Pancho Villa (1878-1923) was a Mexican bandit, warlord and revolutionary. One of the most important figures of the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920), he was a fearless fighter, clever military commander and important power broker during the years of conflict. His vaunted Division of the North was, at one time, the strongest army in Mexico and he was instrumental in the downfall of both Porfirio Dà ­az and Victoriano Huerta. When the alliance of Venustiano Carranza and Alvaro Obregà ³n finally defeated him, he responded by waging a guerrilla war which included an attack on Columbus, New Mexico. He was assassinated in 1923. Early Years Pancho Villa was born Doroteo Arango to a family of impoverished sharecroppers who worked land belonging to the wealthy and powerful Là ³pez Negrete family in the state of Durango. According to legend, when young Doroteo caught one of the Là ³pez Negrete clan trying to rape his sister Martina, he shot him in the foot and fled to the mountains. There he joined a band of outlaws and soon rose to a position of leadership through his bravery and ruthlessness. He earned good money as a bandit and gave some if it back to the poor, which earned him a reputation as a sort of Robin Hood. Revolution Breaks Out The Mexican Revolution broke out in 1910 when Francisco I. Madero, who had lost a crooked election to dictator Porfirio Dà ­az, declared himself president and called for the people of Mexico to take up arms. Arango, who had changed his name to Pancho Villa (after his grandfather) by then, was one who answered the call. He brought his bandit force with him and soon became one of the most powerful men in the north as his army swelled. When Madero returned to Mexico from exile in the United States in 1911, Villa was the one who welcomed him. Villa knew he was no politician but he saw promise in Madero and vowed to take him to Mexico City. The Campaign Against Dà ­az The corrupt regime of Porfirio Dà ­az was still entrenched in power, however. Villa soon gathered an army around him, including an elite cavalry unit. Around this time he earned the nickname â€Å"the Centaur of the North† because of his riding skill. Along with fellow warlord Pascual Orozco, Villa controlled the north of Mexico, defeating federal garrisons and capturing towns. Dà ­az might have been able to handle Villa and Orozco, but he also had to worry about the guerrilla forces of Emiliano Zapata in the south, and before too long it was evident that Dà ­az could not defeat the enemies arrayed against him. He left the country in April of 1911, and Madero entered the capital in June, triumphant. In Defense of Madero Once in office, Madero quickly got into trouble. Remnants of the Dà ­az regime despised him, and he alienated his allies by not honoring his promises to them. Two key allies he turned against him were Zapata, who was disappointed to see that Madero had little interest in land reform, and Orozco, who had hoped in vain that Madero would give him a lucrative post, such as state governor. When these two men once again took up arms, Madero called on Villa, his only remaining ally. Along with General Victoriano Huerta, Villa fought and defeated Orozco, who was forced into exile in the United States. Madero could not see those enemies closest to him, however, and Huerta, once back in Mexico City, betrayed Madero, arrested him and ordered him executed before setting himself up as president. Campaign Against Huerta Villa had believed in Madero and was devastated by his death. He quickly joined an alliance of Zapata and revolution newcomers Venustiano Carranza and Alvaro Obregà ³n dedicated to removing Huerta. By then, Villas Division of the North was the most powerful and feared military unit in the nation and his soldiers numbered in the tens of thousands. Huerta was surrounded and outnumbered, even though Orozco had returned and joined him, bringing his army with him. Villa led the fight against Huerta, defeating federal forces in cities all over northern Mexico. Carranza, a former governor, named himself Chief of the Revolution, which irritated Villa although he accepted it. Villa did not want to be president, but he did not like Carranza. Villa saw him as another Porfirio Dà ­az and wanted someone else to lead Mexico once Huerta was out of the picture. In May of 1914, the way was clear for an attack on the strategic town of Zacatecas, where there was a major railway junction that could carry the revolutionaries right into Mexico City. Villa attacked Zacatecas on June 23. The Battle of Zacatecas was a huge military victory for Villa: barely a few hundred out of 12,000 federal soldiers survived. After the loss at Zacatecas, Huerta knew his cause was lost and tried to surrender to gain some concessions, but the allies would not let him off the hook so easily. Huerta was forced to flee, naming an interim president to rule until Villa, Obregà ³n, and Carranza reached Mexico City. Villa Versus Carranza With Huerta gone, hostilities between Villa and Carranza broke out almost immediately. A number of delegates from the leading figures of the revolution got together at the Convention of Aguascalientes in October of 1914, but the interim government put together at the convention did not last and the country was once again embroiled  in a civil war. Zapata remained holed up in Morelos, only fighting those who ventured onto his turf, and Obregà ³n decided to support Carranza, mostly because he felt Villa was a loose cannon and Carranza was the lesser of two evils. Carranza set himself up as  President of Mexico  until elections could take place and sent Obregà ³n and his army after the rebellious Villa. At first, Villa and his generals, such as  Felipe Angeles, scored decisive victories against Carranza. But in April, Obregà ³n brought his army north and lured Villa into a fight.  The Battle of Celaya took place from April 6-15, 1915 and was a huge victory for Obregà ³n. Villa limped away but Obregà ³n chased him and the two fought at the Battle of Trinidad (April 29-June 5, 1915). Trinidad was another huge loss for Villa and the once-mighty Division of the North was in tatters. In October, Villa crossed the mountains into Sonora, where he hoped to defeat Carranzas forces and regroup. During the crossing, Villa lost Rodolfo Fierro, his most loyal  officer, and cruel hatchet man. Carranza had reinforced Sonora, however, and Villa was defeated. He was forced to cross back into Chihuahua with what was left of his army. By December, it was evident to Villas officers that Obregà ³n and Carranza had won: most of the Division of the North accepted an offer of amnesty and switched sides. Villa himself headed into the mountains with 200 men, determined to keep fighting. The Guerrilla Campaign and the Attack on Columbus Villa had officially gone rogue. His army down to a couple of hundred men, he resorted to banditry to keep his men supplied with food and ammunition. Villa became increasingly  erratic and blamed the Americans for his losses in Sonora. He detested  Woodrow Wilson  for recognizing the Carranza government and began harassing any and all Americans that crossed his path. On the morning of March 9, 1916, Villa attacked Columbus, New Mexico, with 400 men. The plan was to defeat the small garrison and make off with weapons and ammunition as well as to rob the bank and get revenge on one Sam Ravel, an American arms dealer who had once double-crossed Villa and a Columbus resident. The attack failed on every level: the American garrison was much stronger than Villa had suspected, the bank went unrobbed, and Sam Ravel had gone to El Paso. Still, the fame Villa gained by having the guts to attack a town in the United States gave him a new lease on life. Recruits once again joined his army and word of his deeds  was  spread far and wide, often romanticized in song. The Americans sent  General Jack Pershing  into Mexico after Villa. On March 15, he took 5,000 American soldiers across the border. This action became known as the â€Å"Punitive Expedition† and it was a fiasco. Finding the elusive Villa proved next to impossible and logistics were a nightmare. Villa was wounded in a skirmish in late March and spent two months recovering alone in a hidden cave: he dispersed his men into small squads and told them to fight on while he healed. When he came out, many of his men had been killed, including some of his best officers. Undaunted, he took again to the hills, fighting both the Americans and Carranzas forces. In June, there was a confrontation between Carranzas forces and the Americans just south of Ciudad Jurez. Cool heads prevented another war between Mexico and the United States, but it was clear that it was time for Pershing to leave. By early 1917 all American forces had left Mexico, and Villa was still at large. After Carranza Villa remained in the hills and mountains of northern Mexico, attacking small federal garrisons and eluding capture until  1920 when the political situation changed. In 1920, Carranza backed off a promise to support Obregà ³n for president. This was a fatal mistake, as Obregà ³n still had much support in many sectors of society, including the army. Carranza, fleeing Mexico City, was assassinated on May 21, 1920. The death of Carranza was an opportunity for  Pancho Villa. He began negotiations with the government to disarm and stop fighting. Although Obregà ³n was against it, Provisional President Adolfo de la Huerta saw it as an opportunity and brokered a deal with Villa in July. Villa was granted a large hacienda, where many of his men joined him, and his veterans were all given mustering-out pay and an amnesty was declared for Villa, his  officers, and men.  Eventually, even Obregà ³n saw the wisdom of peace with Villa and honored the deal. Death of Villa Obregà ³n was elected President of Mexico in September of 1920, and he began the work of rebuilding the nation.  Villa,  retired to his hacienda in Canutillo, began farming and ranching. Neither man forgot about one another, and the people never forgot Pancho Villa: how could they, when the songs about his daring and cleverness were still sung up and down Mexico? Villa kept a low profile and was seemingly friendly with Obregà ³n, but soon the new president decided the time had come to get rid of Villa once and for all. On July 20, 1923, Villa was  gunned down as he drove a car  in the town of Parral. Although he was never directly implicated in the killing, it is clear that Obregà ³n gave the order, perhaps because he feared Villas interference (or possible candidacy) in the 1924 elections. Pancho Villas Legacy The people of Mexico were devastated to hear of Villas death: he was still a folk hero for his defiance of the Americans, and he was seen as a possible savior from the harshness of the Obregà ³n administration. The ballads continued to be sung and even those who had hated him in life mourned his death. Over the years, Villa has continued to evolve into a mythological figure. Mexicans have forgotten his role in the bloody Revolution, forgotten his massacres and executions and robberies. All that is left is his daring, cleverness and defiance, which continue to be celebrated by many Mexicans in art,  literature, and film. Perhaps it is better this way: Villa himself certainly would have approved. Source: McLynn, Frank.  Villa and Zapata: A History of the Mexican Revolution. New York: Carroll and Graf, 2000.

The Geography of Sri Lanka

The Geography of Sri Lanka Population: 21,324,791 (July 2009 estimate)Capital: ColomboLegislative Capital: Sri Jayawardanapura-KotteArea: 25,332 square miles (65,610 sq km)Coastline: 833 miles (1,340 km)Highest Point: Mount Pidurutalagala at 8,281 feet (2,524 m)Sri Lanka is a large island nation located off of Indias southeast coast. Until 1972, it was formally known as Ceylon but today it is officially called the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka. The country has a long history filled with instability and conflict between ethnic groups. Recently though, relative stability has been restored and Sri Lankas economy is growing. Sri Lankas History It is believed that the origins of human inhabitation in Sri Lanka began in the 6th century B.C.E when the Sinhalese migrated to the island from India. Around 300 years later, Buddhism spread to Sri Lanka which led to highly organized Sinhalese settlements in the northern portion of the island from 200 B.C.E to 1200 C.E. Following this period were invasions from southern India which caused the Sinhalese to migrate south.In addition to early settlement by the Sinhalese, Sri Lanka was inhabited between the 3rd century B.C.E and 1200 C.E. by the Tamils who are the second-largest ethnic group on the island. The Tamils, who are predominantly Hindu, migrated to Sri Lanka from the Tamil region of India. During the early settlement of the island, Sinhalese and Tamil rulers frequently fought for dominance over the island. This led to the Tamils claiming the northern part of the island and the Sinhalese controlling the south to which they migrated.European inhabitation of Sri Lanka began in 15 05 when Portuguese traders landed on the island in search of various spices, took control of the islands coast and began to spread Catholicism. In 1658, the Dutch took over Sri Lanka but the British took control in 1796. After establishing settlements in Sri Lanka, the British then defeated the King of Kandy to formally take control of the island in 1815 and created the Crown Colony of Ceylon. During British rule, Sri Lankas economy was based mainly on tea, rubber and coconuts. In 1931 however, the British granted Ceylon limited self-rule, which eventually led to its becoming a self-governing dominion of the Commonwealth of Nations on February 4, 1948.Following Sri Lankas independence in 1948, conflicts again arose between the Sinhalese and the Tamils when the Sinhalese took over majority control of the nation and stripped over 800,000 Tamils of their citizenship. Since then, there has been civil unrest in Sri Lanka and in 1983 a civil war began in which the Tamils demanded an independent northern state. The instability and violence continued through the 1990s and into the 2000s.By the late 2000s, changes in Sri Lankas gove rnment, pressure from international human rights organizations, and the murder of the opposition Tamil leader officially ended the years of instability and violence in Sri Lanka. Today, the country is working toward repairing ethnic divisions and unifying the country. Government of Sri Lanka Today Sri Lankas government is considered a republic with a single legislative body consisting of a unicameral Parliament whose members are elected by popular vote. Sri Lankas executive body is made up of its chief of state and president- both of which are filled by the same person who is elected by a popular vote for a six-year term. Sri Lankas most recent presidential election took place in January 2010. The judicial branch in Sri Lanka is composed of the Supreme Court and Court of Appeals and the judges for each are elected by the president. Sri Lanka is officially divided into eight provinces. Sri Lankas Economy Sri Lankas economy today is mainly based on the service and industrial sector; however, agriculture plays an important role as well. The major industries in Sri Lanka include rubber processing, telecommunications, textiles, cement, petroleum refining and the processing of agricultural products. Sri Lankas main agricultural exports include rice, sugarcane, tea, spices, grain, coconuts, beef and fish. Tourism and the related services industries are also growing in Sri Lanka. Geography and Climate of Sri Lanka Overall, Sir Lanka has a varied terrain but it mainly consists of flat lands but the south-central portion of the countrys interior features mountain and step sided river canyons. The flatter regions are the areas where most of Sri Lankas agriculture takes place, aside from coconut farms along the coast.Sri Lankas climate is tropical and the southwestern part of the island is the wettest. Most of the rain in the southwest falls from April to June and October to November. The northeastern part of Sri Lanka is drier and most of its rain falls from December to February. Sri Lankas average yearly temperature is around 86 °F to 91 °F (28 °C to 31 °C).An important geographic note about Sri Lanka is its position in the Indian Ocean, which made it vulnerable to one of the worlds largest natural disasters. On December​ 26, 2004, it was struck by a  large tsunami that hit 12 Asian countries. Around 38,000 people in Sri Lanka were killed during this event and much of Sri Lankas coast was destroyed. More Facts about Sri Lanka The common ethnic groups in Sri Lanka are Sinhalese (74%), Tamil (9%), Sri Lankan Moor (7%) and other (10%) Sri Lankas official languages are Sinhala and Tamil References Central Intelligence Agency. (2010, March 23). CIA - The World Factbook Sri Lanka. Retrieved from: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ce.html Infoplease. (n.d.). Sri Lanka: History, Geography, Government, and Culture - Infoplease.com. Retrieved from: infoplease.com/ipa/A0107992.html United States Department of State. (2009, July). Sri Lanka (07/09). Retrieved from: state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5249.htm

Criminal Justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 6

Criminal Justice - Essay Example of possible effects such as ability to work in the judicial system, economic stability, and a highly esteemed social status that comes with profession in the judicial system. My passion for law and order is one of the stimulants for my major in criminal justice, the study of activities and institutions that work together to ensure social stability and to control criminal and civil wrongs in the society. I have always delighted in following legal cases with focus on legal arguments for determination of guilt and extent of guilt. My interest in law has further motivated me to read books in aspects of law such as contract law, family law, land law, and tort law and I occasionally predict consistent arguments for both prosecuting and defence attorneys in cases as well as main judgements in the cases. I have also played an important role in community policing because of my passion in ensuring order in the society. My role has included peer mobilization for campaigns against crimes and for whistle blowing against criminal and civil wrongs. These factors have consequently motivated my interest in the wider scope of criminal justice and therefore influenced my d ecision into the major. Professions in criminal justice have also been linked with high income and this has influenced my major in the field with the aim of specializing in legal studies. Professionals such as magistrates and judges are well paid and the high legal fees for defence attorneys cannot be disputed. Desire to secure an employment opportunities in one of the fields has motivated my choice to major in criminal justice as it is a basis into the fields. There is also high demand for legal counsel, either in judicial processes of in commercial dealings and the associated stability in demand for service influenced my major with the aim of securing a stable source of income. My background information in law is another factor that influenced my decision to major in criminal justice in college. In addition to

What is Fibromyalgia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

What is Fibromyalgia - Essay Example Some of the main symptoms relied upon by the doctors during the diagnosis are fatigue, pain and sleep disturbance (Bellato et al. 2012). The above mentioned symptoms are also call primary symptoms. A study by Medifocus.com, Inc. Staff, (2012) acknowledges that, these symptoms in almost 80% to 100% of the patients. On the other hand, there are other symptoms leveled as associated symptoms of fibromyalgia. They include; headaches, irritable bowel syndrome, chronic pelvic pain, mood disorders, irritable bladder symptoms and hypersensitivity to cold temperatures. The disorder can be classified into primary and secondary Fibromyalgia. Cause of the latter can be evaluated but the former, primary fibromyalgia is quite hard to ascertain. According to Medifocus.com, Inc. Staff, (2012), primary Fibromyalgia is also referred to as idiopathic Fibromyalgia, this kind of disorder is hard to identify its main causes. However, secondary fibromyalgia is easy to identify its main causes because it arises after a long time of living with disease such as rheumatoid arthritis. Research also reveals that trauma or brain injury can cause fibromyalgia due to the disturbance to the central nervous system. The main aim of treatment of the disorder is to reduce pain, develop physical functions and to stop sleep disturbances. Common symptoms such as depression, pain and others show that the cause of the disorder is quite complex. The disorder can be inherited or caused by environmental issues. This calls for both medication and non-pharmacological treatment (Bellato et al. 2012). Some of the drugs used for treatment of fibromyalgia include; analgesics, muscles relaxants, antidepressants and anticonvulsants. Some of these drugs are meant to reduce stress and reduce sleeplessness. For example, Tricycle antidepressants are prescribed to patients with sleep disturbance (Medifocus.com, Inc. Staff, 2012). Bellato,

Men Are Aggressors And Women Are Victims

Men Are Aggressors And Women Are Victims Men are aggressors and women are victims is a very stereotypical view might be held by the majority of society and by some of the first criminologists; however criminology has evolved to try and understand how this stereotype has come to be seen as the norm within crime. They also try exploring whether this stereotype is in fact true or whether there are various differences. To understand the part of this stereotype that women are victims we must first look into the role of a victim. The role of a victim is essential in initiating the criminal justice process as the majority of offences which come to the attention of the police are reported to them by victims of these offences; their two roles within the criminal justice system are that of reporting the crime and providing evidenced that the crime has been committed. This role of the victim is different than in days gone by when the crime was controlled by individual and community self-regulation, as crimes were seen to be a private matter between offender and victim and so it was up to the victim and their family to decide if they went to court or not and would play the role of prosecutor rather than victim. Nils Christie (1986) explained how in the role of victim there is an ideal victim such as an elderly woman or a child, both seen as an ideal victim as they are seen as weak and deserving of help and care, on the other hand young men are seen as not as deserving of help and sympathetically and so are not as likely to be seen as true victims. This shows that the stereotype of only women as victims and men as aggressors is not true as it may just be that men are not seen as much of victims of an offence than a woman might be. There are many social variables which determine a persons likelihood to be a victim, one of which is gender. It has been shown from crime surveys that men are in actual fact more likely to be victims of violent attacks but that women are more likely to be victimised in the home. This shows how men can be victims and not just the aggressors who commit the acts, but it also shows how women can also still be victims and that perhaps different genders are victims of different types of attacks. For example men aged between 17 and 32 make up 7 per cent of the population but 25 per cent of all murder victims (Dorling, 2012) this is a greater percentage than women between these ages that are murdered proving how men can be more likely to be a victim than a women in certain crimes. This is true also by the fact that women are more likely to be the victim of reported and unreported sexual offences and are more likely to experience repeated unwanted attention such as stalking than men. However when it comes to a whole number of crimes it can be difficult to make judgements as to whether men or women are more likely to be victims as there are many forms on gendered crime such as forced prostitution and sex trafficking which are more likely to have female victims. A study conducted by the NSPCC in 2009 on people aged between 13-18 found that a third of girls and only 16% of boys had experienced sexual violence (Barter et al., 2009) This shows how girls are more likely to be a victim of this type of crime; although this statistics may not be entirely accurate because some people especially boys may not want to admit to being raped as it is more humiliating because of their gender. The study also showed how 12% of boys and only 3% of girls reported committing sexual violence against their partners (Barter et al., 2009); so this could be used to show how men are more likely to be aggressors; however these statistics are related to specific crimes and not all reported crimes and so are not proof of the men are aggressors and women are victims stereotype. Men as victims challenges the victim stereotype about who can be a victim, the lack of understanding of potential impacts on men this lack of perceived victimhood can have points to the lack of large-scale surveys on male victimisation, although these surveys may not be answered correctly as men could perceive being known as a victim as a threat to their masculinity. This means men may not answer surveys correctly as they do not want to be seen as a victim or they do not see themselves as a victim such as in cases of domestic abuse as if they were attacked by their female partner they may not see it as a real crime as no actual damage was done to themselves. There has been a sort of gender myopia within criminology in which early criminologists did not look into crimes committed by women, Heidensohn (1968) how this exclusion of women from criminology excluded half of society in understanding deviance and that other aspects of women and their lives are of interest to social sciences and that as gender differences are well reported in crime such as men committing more crime on the whole then women why then where they not well investigated. When criminologists did look into female offending they did not go as in depth with male criminology. Cesare Lombroso was an early positivist criminologist who used physiognomy to explain why some people commit crimes creating and anthropological criminology in which crime was thought to be inherited and that criminals could be identified from their physical features and that all criminals had certain physical features in common such as a small or weak chin and long arms. Lombroso penned a book with Guglielmo Ferrero in 1895, The Female Offender in this they tried to explain female criminals. They stated how when a woman does turn to crime how she is a monster and that her wickedness must have been enormous before it could triumph over so many obstacles. They also held the belief like many of their time that women ranked lower on the evolutionary scale than men, so were more primitive and so they suggested that female criminals would not be as visible as male criminals and would show fewer signs of degeneracy than males. So Lombroso and Ferrero stated how female criminality was down to their biology and a female criminal is an abnormal woman but also as they were like a man often more ferocious (Ferrero and Lombroso, 1895). So although early criminologists were aware of female offenders they put this down to the abnormality of a women being manlier and ferocious therefore it is not just a man who can be an aggressor. Further exploration into any other causes of female criminality bar abnormality and masculine traits were not much looked into until the next century after The Female Offender was published. The absence of qualitative research also meant that women were neglected from criminology, they are also seen and represented as helpmates rather than instigators of serious crime such as Ian Brady and Myra Hindley in the 1960s; he was seen as the instigator and she as a manipulated helper in killing and hiding the murders of several children. Some criminological theories attempted to explain female offending such as the learning theories which explain it by the fact male crime was glamorised in the media and encouraged women to commit crime. Because of this lack of thought into female offenders they were often seen as abnormal to other females as a criminal cannot be neutral when the norm is taken to be male and so women are measured to the degree to which they deviated from this norm and if they did offend and thus would be institutionalised for their own protection. Because of this previous treatment many think this leniency has carried on into the current criminal justice system causing the chivalry debate (Pollak, 1950) where a female offender might not be treated or judged as harshly as a male counterpart by a for instance a male judge who is sentencing her for a crime. This thinking of female offenders being abnormal from the rest of women reinforced the women as victims not as the aggressors stereotype and Pollak (1950) talks about this behaviour from certain women meaning them being seen as devious women. Female criminals are seen as twice as deviant as they have gone against the law and also against their prescr ibed gender role; this double deviance has reinforced the stereotype of women as victims so therefore they have not been twice as deviant even though in committing the same acts a man would only be seen as being deviant by going against the law and that his gender role is played along with as deviance is seen as a more male trait and thus males are seen to be more likely an aggressor than a victim. This silence of female offending in criminology could be explained by social gender inequalities, a low public profile as female crime could be seen as the wrong sort of crime, and it could also be difficult to accommodate gender perspectives in traditional criminological theories, the traditional feminisation of victimhood and masculinisation of aggression. There have been several theories and perspectives as to why women are perhaps committing more crimes such as Simon (1993) womens greater opportunities and skills increased participation in labor force and years of schooling, have increased their propensity to commit criminal acts, especially property and white-collar offenses. Adler (1975) explains how women seem to be becoming more violent and aggressive and that perhaps this is why they are committing more crimes. Because of this lack of research into female offenders, feminist criminology emerged in the 1960s and 1970s, as it could not be doubted that female criminals existed and seem to be on the rise as does female delinquency although this could be due to the media sensationalising female offenders there has been a veritable siege of news stories with essentially the same theme girls are in gangs and their behaviour in these gangs does not fit the stereotypical and traditional stereotype (Chesney-Lind, 1997). There are many different sub-sects of feminist theory each dealt with specific problems such as liberal feminism which deals with discrimination. This rise of research into female criminality lead in turn to more exploration and a deeper understanding of male crime and masculinity within crime and the differences between men and women and offending; showing that masculinity although perceived as a male criminal factor could also be apparent in women and that masculinity is not static and can be effected by context. There is also no clear notion of masculine identity meaning that although aggression is seen as a masculine trait that it can be apparent in both sexes and thus the stereotype that only men can be aggressors is false. Feminist criminologys concern is the marginalisation of women as subject matters in other criminological theories, because of the lack of theorising female offenders and then the lack of empirical investigations into the topic. The feminist critique also includes the lack of research into female victimisation and male violence against women and they argued that the majority of attention on how the criminal justice system affects male offenders and not female offenders. They argued that criminology in general held a rather uncritical attitude towards gender stereotypes, leading to the doubly-deviant debate (Llyod, 1995). Works such as Dobash and Dobashs (1992) Women, Violence and Social Change challenged the mainstream ideas around vicitimology and made the various forms and extent of female victims more visible. Feminist critique explores the gender gap apparent within the criminal justice system which went beyond early criminologists views such as Pollaks (1950) chivalry thesis whic h plays upon the existing stereotypical gender roles and patriarchal values to develop a more sophisticated gender analysis. As masculinity is seen in criminology as a male criminal contributor, the feminist criminology critique has allowed for the revealing of the power that underpins masculinity and its effect on the genders such as how males are obliged to live up to their gender role and so any criminal or deviant behaviour could be linked to them trying to fulfil their male role. The feminist approach shows a new side that builds on gender role theory and so helps criminology to move away from strict biological explanations such as those by Ferrero and Lombroso. So masculinity is viewed as an expression of difference from feminism behaviours but masculinity becomes representative of heterosexual power in this way and is normative and valued. So the feminist critique helps to explore gender template roles. Although the feminist critique shows how deviant acts committed by males are an example of men trying to fulfil their male role, this approach also points to a hierarchy of masculine types. This masc ulinity is not only confined to males but masculinity can change meaning over time and so there is no single masculinity. The feminist understanding of masculinity seeks to move past the simplistic stereotype of men as aggressors and women as victims and instead suggests that male identities are all different and that there is diversity this way in both genders. This leads to a questioning of previous positivist biological approaches such as Ferrero and Lombrosos work and other positivist works which try to use on universal explanation for female crime and the idea of crime is maleness as a beginning point. Feminist theory has allowed for the deconstruction of the stereotypical view of men as aggressors or criminals and women as vulnerable and conforming to a victim role. However the most consistent and dramatic findings from Lombroso not postmodern criminology is not that criminals are working classà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ but that most criminals are, and always have been, men (Cain, 1989). So men in general do commit more crimes then women but this does not confirm the stereotype of men are aggressors and women are victims as there is still room for women to be aggressors and men to be victims. Table 1 http://crimlinks.files.wordpress.com/2012/11/population-in-prison-by-gender.png?w=490h=79 This table shows the population in prisons by gender 30 June 2007 (MINISTRY OF JUSTICE, 2012). Each year it shows how there is a vast gap between numbers of women and men, however this may not necessarily mean men commit more crimes than women but that maybe they are more likely to commit more violent crimes and thus end up in prison as it is a harsher sentence and women may just commit as many crimes but of a different sort such as stealing and not go to prison and be sentenced to community service. Graph 1 This graph (Office for National Statistics, 2013) shows the incidents of intimate violence in the last year among adults of both genders aged 16 to 59, in 2011/12. These figures help to prove the stereotype that women are the victims are not always true as more men (2% more) interviewed reported being victims of violence than women. However 2% more women reported themselves as being victims of initiate violence than men. Literature on female violence usually has two central themes. The first is that even women are just as violent as men this is hidden in some sort of conspiracy as women should be seen as passive and men as the violent gender stereotype a small percentage of violent crime has always been committed by women (Pollock and Davis, 2005). This theory has been quashed by many writers such as Pearson (1997) who provides evidence of women who have killed their own children, helped killers and who killed their husbands and many other examples to show how women are violent and she argues they have always been as violent and predatory as men. This disproves the women as victims and not aggressors stereotype. There are also statistics which back up the women as the aggressors and committers of crime and not just men theory women commit the majority of child homicides in the United States (Pollock and Davis, 2005). However Jones (2009) argues that the women crime waves that seem to be apparent actu ally correlates with womens liberation movements and so women may receive different reactions from law enforcement then previous leading to increases of arrests and thus women crime waves. She also argues that the reason the women as victims and men as aggressors stereotype is still prevalent is due to men fearing powerful women, however her description ignores that women are less likely to murder than men; so the stereotype of men being more likely to be aggressors and so commit crime is true, even though women can too be aggressors. Even though women for some reason, they kill, rob, and assault much less often than men (Pollock and Davis, 2005); this makes it difficult for feminist criminology to figure out why women are less likely to be aggressors than men as no clear unanimous reasons seem to exist. The second theme is that more women are becoming violent than ever before and that numbers of violent and criminal acts committed by women are increasing; said to be due to womens liberation movements changing socialisation. This idea is based on percentage increases in women committing and being convicted of crime however as the numbers of women who commit these crimes are so small it wont take many to seem as though there has been a large increase Schaffner (1999) is one writer who discusses a rise in violent crime among young females uses these percentage increases. But she notes that the percentage increases can be influenced by small numbers; she infers that the rise may be due to females witnessing violence in their own home and on the streets but these factors may not be any different to times gone by when women in the 19th century witnessed these same factors yet were less likely to commit crime. Although men are aggressors and women are victims is a rather stereotypical viewpoint it can be the case given that more men commit crimes and are in jail and thus are aggressors and that women are more likely to be a victim of certain crimes such as rape. However feminist criminologists amongst others have shown how women can also be aggressors and commit crimes, although the reasons for this is not as well known or researched as it is for men. It is also clear from crime figures that men are more likely to be victims than women of certain crimes such as murder. So men are more likely to be aggressors overall but women can be aggressors too and men can be more likely to be victims of certain crimes. So the stereotype of men are aggressors and women are victims does hold some merit when taken as a sweeping statement for all crime but there are certain errors in this statement when we look closer into gender and crime.

Baudrillard’s ideas on the film The Matrix Essay

It has long been a condition of western culture to act for the accumulation of material objects. This is in part due to the capitalist nature of the world within which we live. Marx identifies in ‘The Critique of Capitalism’ the emergence of two new classes of people, namely ‘capitalists’ and ‘labourers’. The term ‘capitalist’ describes any person who has personal ownership of capital, which ‘consists of raw materials, instruments of labour and means of subsistence’ (Marx). In contrast a ‘labourer’ has only the value of his labour (life activity), which he exchanges with the capitalist for a wage and as such ‘the worker sinks to the level of commodity’ (Marx). Because the labourer produces for the capitalist a commodity of greater value than that of his wages and in addition those wages are paid back to the capitalist in return for subsistence, therefore social control in exerted over the working class, whilst providing the capitalist with excess commodity. The labourer consentingly becomes a slave to the system on which he depends. In addition Marx states that as the relation between capitalist and labourer (manufacturer and consumer) develops, so competition between rival capitalists becomes apparent. In effect the capitalist is forced to capture more of the market by selling goods more cheaply by the consolidation and exploitation of labour power e. g. by machinery. Such a strategy ultimately limits the demand for labour and so new industries must be developed for exploitation. These new industries are necessary because capital exists only in relation to its ability to command labour and social control and as such ‘they reciprocally condition the existence of each other’ (Marx). These forced increases in demand and therefore production are evident in the contemporary world market. Important to the development of Capitalism is the use of money which abstracts labour and commodity values to a common unit for the purpose of trade. In effect the labourer discovers that ‘the product of his activity is not the object of his activity’ (Marx) thus a level of abstraction occurs, which was consistent with the modernist values of the time. Karl Marx and early capitalism were mainly concerned with production which remains important but it was Situationist, Guy Debord, who gave the first insights into late capitalism and the theories that best apply to today’s world economics and culture of commodities. Debord, in his book ‘The Society of the Spectacle’, bases his examination of commodities around consumption, media, information and technology. As such Debord suggests that ‘in societies where modern conditions of production prevail, all of life presents itself as an immense accumulation of spectacles. Everything that was directly lived has moved away into a representation. ‘ By this he means to describe the world and its products as mere appearances, where the real meanings and values of commodities are translated into signs. Essentially ‘it is a world vision that has been objectified’ (Debord). Debord explains the phenomenon of the spectacle as resulting from the ever increasing production of capitalism. Because competition between capitalists inevitably leads to an excess of produce, so consumer demand must be increased. Such an increase is controllable by the spectacle as ‘the real consumer becomes a consumer of illusions,’ (Debord) so he can be manipulated to believe he must consume beyond the basic necessity for survival e. g. leisure products. Therefore ‘the spectacle’s form and content are identically the total justification of the existing system’s conditions and goals’ (Debord). The spectacle is mediated in society ‘as information or propaganda, as advertisement or direct entertainment consumption,’ (Debord). The effects of the mediated spectacle tend to lead the consumer to an experience of alienation as the consumers’ want for commodities is dictated to serve and maintain capitalism. In addition the spectacle constantly reinforces itself, for example the television, which is in itself a product of the spectacle that is then used by the capitalist to implement the advertisement of other spectacles. Essentially the ‘spectacle is the nightmare of imprisoned modern society’ (Debord) and explains the transition from the ‘degradation of being into having’ to ‘having into appearing’ (Debord). Jean Baudrillard took Marx’s ‘Critique of Capitalism’ and Debord’s ‘The Society of the Spectacle’ to their conclusions with his own theory of simulation and simulacra. Similar to the idea of the spectacle, Baudrillard describes a world where the subject of everything has been replaced by a semiological value that has become more important than the original, ‘real’ meaning of the object. This object he calls a ‘simulacra’. In ‘Simulacra and Simulation’ Baudrillard adds extra complexity to these ideas by establishing a hierarchy of simulation, which he gives four orders. In the first order the object is a copy of an original and so can be linked to a basic reality, for example a photograph of an actual event. The second order of simulation misrepresents the original subject; in the example the photography has been digitally manipulated in Photoshop to present a non-occurrence. In the third order a reality is recreated from a simulation of an original reality, when in fact, through the process of simulacra, the original has been lost, e. g. a scene is recreated from the digitally manipulated photograph of the original event. Finally, the forth order of simulation is the combined process of the first, second and third order to such an extent that the object bears no relation to reality or the original, for example the photograph has become a virtual reality. In this instance the link between reality and the signifying systems is almost impossible to ascertain, thus creating a ‘hyper-reality’. It is the use of one simulacra as a basis for the formation of another simulacra that shows the first signs of relevance to post modernity. Consequently, in post modernism, everything is understood in relation to everything that has come before, which in design manifests itself in referencing. Post modernism is also concerned with the fact that there is no right or wrong and essentially that no real truth exists. It is of course possible for a sign to make a transition through all four of the orders of simulation, constantly abstracting meaning and widening the gap between simulation and reality. However due to the complexity of repeated abstraction and signification it becomes necessary for an amount of speculation and simplification to occur when examining transitional examples. If we take, for example, the now famous emblem of automotive company Rolls Royce, it becomes apparent the extent to which a symbolic object can be re-simulated, each time loosing a part of it’s original meaning. ‘Spirit of Ecstasy’, designed by sculptor Charles Sykes and mass produced in 1911, is a cast metal emblem representing the figurine of a girl with arms outstretched to hold the folds of her gown blowing in the breeze. To the present day this emblem has been displayed on the bonnets of Rolls Royce cars and is the first order of simulation in terms of it being a representation of a real person from which the sculpture has been modelled. The object also references the figure heads of classic sailing ships in an attempt to convey the automotive product as an elegant, quite and reliable vehicle, which were the mediated associations with the brand during the early development of the company. In this instance the object enters the third order of simulation as a real event (model posing for sculptor) is created from an existing symbolic object (sailing boat figure heads) in order to be recreated as a new symbolic object (Spirit of Ecstasy emblem). At this point it is important to note that this example as an investigation could examine many more stages of referencing prior to the sign’s use as figure heads, though this could prove too difficult and inaccurate, again reinforcing the existence of a hyper-reality. The tea pot, designed by Michael Graves in 1985 for Alessi, brings the symbol to its conclusion. The tea pot employs a plastic emblem of a bird that is attached to the spout of the kettle and creates a whistling noise when the water is boiled. This creates a pun between the whistling of a kettle and the singing of bird but more importantly, its similar visual appearance (i. e. the wings of the bird and the outstretched arms and gown of the girl) makes a reference of Rolls Royce cars. Because during the late 20th century the values associated with Rolls Royce have matured to convey the brand as one of top class and status, so it are these value that are associated with Grave’s tea pot, supposed to the original associations that Rolls Royce was referencing from classic sailing ships. Therefore the product has clearly entered the forth order of simulation is it holds no relation to the original meaning that the original object as sign attempted to represent. Also, by referencing past signs, it can be described as a post modern object. Like Debord, Baudrillard agreed that simulation was important to the survival of capitalism as it, through mediation, can control the level of consumption within society. Baudrillard used the term ‘valorisation’ to describe the process through which symbolic objects attain value. An excellent example of valorisation is Pokemon cards, which are essentially printed illustrations on card and so their use value is very low. However, via mediation, Pokemon cards have been given a simulated symbolic value that has made them desirable and powerful as a commodity. As well as design, Baudrillard’s theory of simulation and simulacra has also proved influential in film making, for example in ‘The Matrix’, directed by the Wachowski brothers. The Matrix is set in the future at a time when the real world has been reduced to a desert waste land by a war between humanity and machines; after the invention of artificial intelligence. Because the machines are dependant on solar power, the humans have caused the equivalent of a nuclear winter by blocking out sunlight. This has caused the machines to retaliate by imprisoning humans in gel filled pods so that energy can be extracted from them in the form of heat. In order to control the humans in this procedure a computer simulated world called the matrix exists, that all of the imprisoned humans are connected to, living their lives in what they believe is the late 20th century, oblivious to the fact that their real bodies are in stasis in the real world. The film therefore acts as a metaphor for contemporary western cultures. Firstly the matrix is an existence of the fourth order of simulation in that it is a system of mere signs that are completely detached from reality, i. e. hyper-reality. Just as in contemporary cultures, the people who live in the matrix are unaware that they are controlled by a system through simulation. â€Å"You are a slave, neo, like everyone else you were born into bondage, born into a prison that you cannot smell or taste or touch, a prison for your mind†¦ What is the matrix? Control. The matrix is a computer generated dream world built to keep us under control in order to change a human being into this† (he holds up a copper battery) (Morpheus talking to Neo, The Matrix). In addition the film suggests that the prisoners of the Matrix are also dependant upon it, to the extent that they will fight to protect it. Baudrillard’s idea of mediasation appears in the film when it is suggested that there was a machine â€Å"spawning a whole race of machines† (Morpheus talking to Neo, The Matrix), thus the social control of the machines (mediation of signs) increasingly exert themselves with every new generation. Interestingly The Matrix seems to offer a solution to simulation and social control by the system, which is one of enlightenment. Once Neo understands the systems and can see the signs (computer code) of the matrix for what they really are, then he can choose to follow a different set of rules thus gaining control of his environment. As well as a theological basis on Baudrillard, The Matrix tends to convey the story via symbolic references and thus is post modern by nature. For example the ‘follow the white rabbit scene’ employs a tattoo of a white rabbit, which is referenced from ‘Alice in Wonderland’ in order to convey the uncertainty in discovering the truth of an alternate reality. In the same scene Neo also opens a copy Baudrillard’s ‘Simulacra and Simulation’ in effect reinforcing links to that element of the film. In conclusion, I have identified the main themes surrounding Baudrillard’s orders of simulacra and simulation, shown how they relate to modern and post modern design and have given contemporary examples of their use in product design and film making. I believe that such an understanding of simulation has served well to better understanding referencing in post modernity. References Debord, G., (1977) The Society of the Spectacle, Black & Red Poster, M., (1998) Jean Baudrillard: Selected Writings, Polity Press Tucker, R. C., (1978) The Marx – Engels Reader Second Edition, Norton & Company Bibliography Hebdige, D., (1994) Hiding in the Light, Routledge http://www.geneseo.edu/~bicket/panop/baudrillard.ht http://www.artisanitorium.thehydden.com/nonfiction/film/matrix.htm http://www.rolls-roycemotorcars.com/master_frame.html

Why Did Nationalist Movements Fail to Achieve Much Before...

Nationalist movements have been present since the start of colonial rule and the eminent failure of these nationalist movements before the onset of World War Two have not gone un-noticed by historians. ‘nationalism is linked with the idea of progress, a progress which man himself can induce or control.’ The firm control that the pre-WWII Western colonial powers imposed on the territories that they governed ensure that the local people would not demand for the sovereignty of their state. However a select few revolutionaries formed nationalist movements in order to regain the independence of their states. Unfortunately, many of these nationalist movements failed to achieve much before the start of World War Two and it is in this†¦show more content†¦He was able to mobilize up to 3,000 peasant followers because of his ability to use religion to appeal to these people. He was perceived to be a man of extraordinary powers, owing to his great accumulation of merit. Similar rebellions, led by ‘holy men’ like Phaya (known as phi bun) broke out in the northeast. By 1901, the number of phi bun movements rose to well over 100. By 1902, many of these movements were able to take up arms against the state. However, these armed rebellions were quickly suppressed by government forces. The rebellions were tradit ionally anti-monarchy and were spontaneous and reactive, employing religious symbols and reacting against the monarchical government. The peasant rebellions in Thailand did not achieve anything as they were quickly suppressed, showing the intolerance of the colonial powers towards any traditional anti-colonial nationalist movements. The radical anti-colonial nationalist movements, using violence, strikes and demonstrations were more successful compared to their traditional counterparts, as its actions were much more prominent and it rallied under the idea of the creation of a nation-state. 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